African Christian Leadership Context

 By Kurai Chitima

The context of the study Chitima (2011) undertook on the influence of Christian formation on leadership development in an African context is looked at from a general African point of view as well as a Zimbabwe point of view below.

Africa Context

            Zimbabwe shares with most of Sub Saharan Africa a history of being both a victim of colonialism and a shining fruit of Christian missionary efforts from the late eighteenth century to the late nineteenth century. As a victim: European countries, in what began as coastal contacts in the fifteenth century, and then in the nineteenth century by treaties and by conquest, scrambled to attain Africa in pursuit of wealth, raw materials, and fame. This inhabitation led to the partitioning of Africa, finalized in 1885 at the treaty of Berlin, into the present day political boundaries (Lloyd 51, 57). Ethiopia, Liberia, Guinea, and Riodeoro are the only countries that remained uncolonized. The colonial settlers forcibly and often brutally took away prime land and reserved the poor land for locals. This discrimination led to the rise of African nationalism from as early as the 1950s. M. Bourdillon notes, “As liberation movements got under way in the twentieth century, they were often supported by leaders in established churches, who saw the injustices of the colonial governments…” (265). Wars between settlers and Africans occurred primarily because of the desire to reclaim ownership rights over resources such as land. By 1993, through international pressure and local resistance, African countries against indomitable odds had received independence from colonial rule. This legacy determined the kind of political leaders in early postcolonial Africa and their priorities such as resistance to what they perceived as new colonial forms. Kofi Appiah-Kubi and Sergio Torres quote Kwame Nkrumah:

[T]he essence of neo colonialism is that the State which is subject to this, is, in theory, independent and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty, in reality its economic system and thus its political policy is directed from outside. (156)

Leadership is a product of the ways through which leaders rise or are developed. To them preserving ownership and sovereignty comes before providing food. Ironically, however, the failure to provide food is a threat to the nationalistic ideals in the long term. It presents an unintended opportunity for the erstwhile oppressors to emerge as the final liberators.  Managing the different forces equally is a leadership challenge Africa faces. Without a good balance, self-determination can become self-extermination.

Despite strong postcolonial indigenization forces, external links still play a major developmental role in Africa. The links are valued for bringing ideas, status, and resources. Many of the strong churches in all categories of the doctrinal divide such as Catholics and Protestants, including Pentecostals, benefit directly or indirectly from external sources of some kind (Gifford 308). The relationship, however, evolved from being one of dependency to one of interdependence by the end of the twentieth century. The church in Africa has assumed a high level of autonomy characterized by African leadership and methods. The resources of the more developed continents, however, still play a leveraging role in local African initiatives. The African church continues to receive tools, theology, and practices from abroad, and is maturing in effectively contextualizing them and developing its own tools and practices that others can import.

As a shining missionary fruit, the proportion of Christians in Sub Saharan Africa has grown phenomenally. Great revivals in Europe and America led, for example, by Dwight L. Moody and the Student Volunteer Movement, inspired many missionaries to come to Africa. They were able to take advantage of the knowledge gained from the 1848-1878 explorations by people like David Livingstone who explored, inter alia, the Zambezi River, becoming the first European to see the Mosi-oa-Tunya falls, which he named the Victoria Falls. As large numbers of explorers came to Africa, missions advanced with them. Explorers’ data opened the way for both the colonialists and the missionaries. Christianity became more firmly established after 1890 because of the improved availability of information and a more favorable reception the colonialists afforded the missionary efforts. The Christian History Institute, based on information from the Overseas Ministries Study Center, notes that in the twentieth century the Christian population in Africa grew from eight or nine million in 1900 (8 to 9 percent) to some 335 million in 2000 (45 percent). The advent of Christianity transformed lives and communities through activities such as proclamation of the message of Christ and service work such as establishing schools and hospitals. Musimbi Kanyoro, Andre Karamaga, Modupe Oduyoye stress that “as a matter of fact, the Church in Zimbabwe was a loner in establishing schools and clinics in rural areas. This was also true when it came to teaching people rudimentary skills in modern agriculture carpentry, and construction of better houses” (174).

Despite the rapid growth of the church and education in Africa, the need for able leadership of integrity in Africa has been noted and widely acknowledged. G. Kinoti and others (e.g. Mazrui; Ayittey; Adeyemo) attribute Africa’s woes to lack of effective leadership, not a lack of resources. A multi-sectoral approach addresses this situation. The church has a vital role in the process if not for any other reason than because of its sheer size and growth on the continent. Tokunboh Adeyemo argues, “[O]nly a faithful obedient church can bring change to Africa” (54).

Poor leadership is also prevalent in African churches as Louise Kretzschmar notes:

While it would be foolish to deny that a great many excellent and capable leaders are to be found in many churches, it would be equally foolish to pretend that leadership difficulties are not being experienced in African churches. It would appear that many leaders are uncertain, tentative and ineffective or else they go to the other extreme of acting in a domineering and coercive manner. These inadequate patterns of leadership lead to conflict within churches, splits between churches, ineffective ministry, and the mismanagement of financial, human and other resources. (47)

This reality undermines the church’s qualification as a competent entity to raise alternative leadership.

The church in Africa often described as being “a mile wide and an inch deep” has much more quantity than quality of members. The depth may have improved in many since the beginning of the twentieth century, but the width has outgrown the improvement, effectively resulting in a more unfavorable ratio. This lack of quality makes Christian formation the greatest challenge that the church in Africa faces in the twenty-first century. Proponents of this view include Obed who makes the observation that in the twentieth century the Church, in general, emphasized missions, evangelism, church growth, and church planting, virtually eclipsing effective Christian formation (viii, 15). As a result, notwithstanding success in the emphasized areas, spiritual depth that is essential for sustained vitality as well as personal and community transformation has been scant. He believes the church in this century must rediscover the meaning, importance, and practice of Christian formation. Effective Christian formation is the answer to the key objectives for worship, leadership development, social relevance, evangelism, church growth, and expansion. The primary strategy for combating spiritual decline and stimulating sustainable progress in achieving the Great Commission is effective Christian formation. (Matt. 28:19-20).

Zimbabwe Context

            Zimbabwe is a country of twelve million people in Southern Africa. The country acquired independence from Britain in 1980 after more than fifteen years of armed conflict. Economically, the country has, in the last fifteen  years, faced perennial droughts. Zimbabwe has adopted policy implementation approaches, particularly on land, that critics attribute to severe economic depression between 2000 and 2009. All economic indicators were at a record low making it the only country in Southern Africa experiencing economic decline. Politically, the country is a multiparty democracy that between 2000 and 2010 has had  election results that were bitterly disputed, resulting in violent political rivalry that has accelerated the economic decline. The country of Zimbabwe has resultantly perennially failed to sustain itself and relied on massive food donations and supplies from outside. A government formed in 2009 inclusive of the main political parties has brought hope. The situation in the country however calls for all sectors, particularly the church, to play their part in the development of godly, competent, innovative, and relevant leaders who are able to lift the country out of its current state.

According to a 2002 census by the Zimbabwe Central Statistical Office and an Operation World International research report (Johnstone and Mandryk 689), over 70 percent of the Zimbabwe population call themselves Christians. In Harare, the capital city, the 2002 Central Statistical Office census found that 86 percent of people living in Harare claimed to be Christians. Positively, those who call themselves Christians can be found in virtually all sectors of society. Many Christians who profess allegiance to local churches occupy leadership positions in politics, business, local government, sports, etc. These positions of leadership give them a great opportunity to influence their vocational spheres with biblical values and to affect society. The church must understand the dynamics with which Christian secular leaders have to deal so they will know how best to support them and to intentionally generate more of them.

Three local church planting waves can be identified in Zimbabwe. The first was in the late 1800s and early 1900s by missionaries from outside the country. The second is conspicuous from the 1950s and was fanned by the rise of African nationalism. Zimbabweans in Zimbabwe started churches that were self-governing, self-financing, and self-perpetuating. This wave accelerated after the advent of Zimbabwe’s independence in 1980. The third wave involved the acceleration of church planting by players from both previous waves. A collective goal was set by over five hundred church leaders at a congress in 1991 to plant at least ten thousand more churches in Zimbabwe by the year 2000. As a result, more than two thirds of the churches in existence in Zimbabwe today were started since the late 1970s, particularly in the 1990s, when the number of local churches in the country is estimated to have more than doubled.

Local church surveys[1] carried out by the Zimbabwe National Evangelism Task and the Evangelical Fellowship of Zimbabwe, however, estimated that less than 20 percent of the population actually attended weekly church services. The studies, among other things, asked church leaders to provide the number of people who attend their main weekly meetings, in most cases held on Sundays. The research included most Christian churches from Catholic, mainline, and evangelical groups. The 20 percent, however, excluded those who attend church erratically or seasonally, and might perhaps have some considerable measure of church influence. This percentage sounds too small given the high proportion that claim to be Christian, but this indication that a small proportion of the population attends church is too strong to ignore. This discrepancy could be the reason why, despite the presence of many Christians in the country, with some in positions of influence, high levels of moral decadence continue to prevail. When people do not attend churches they are less likely to be effective witnesses of Christ. Anecdotal evidence estimates that over 50 percent of those who profess to be Christians ascribe solely or partially to the traditional religion—ancestral worship. Assuming most Christian formation happens in churches, the level of church attendance is important because it reflects that of Christian formation. Church is the Christian formation community where the Christian facet of leadership is developed. Of interest to this study is the question of what difference the church is making to those who are a part of the estimated 20 percent that have made themselves available to local church Christian formation.

            John S. Mbiti’s (262) and Richard J. Gehmann’s (1) description of Africans being “notoriously religious” is also true of Zimbabweans:

[I]n their traditional life African peoples are deeply religious. It is religion, more than anything else, which colours their understanding of the universe and their empirical participation in that universe, making life a profoundly religious phenomenon. To be is to be religious in a religious universe. (Mbiti 262)

Prior to the coming of Christianity, the predominant traditional form of worship in Zimbabwe was ancestral worship. In this form of religion, the spiritual influences every area of life, leadership included. Public leadership development would require spiritual development and integration. Gehman notes that religion permeates all the departments of the African life so fully that isolating its influence is not always easy or possible. (1). If not Christianity or ancestral worship, some other religion will be practiced. E. Bolaji Idowu aptly describes African spirituality when he says that deep in the minds of men and women of every level of spiritual and intellectual attainment is the persistent notion that the deceased still have a part to play, for better or for worse, in the lives of the living (178). In another writing, J. S. Pobee and Gabriel Ositelu note that “the African is radically religious at the core of his or her being” (9).

            Elizabeth Isichei writes that the traditional world was profoundly religious and did not compartmentalize it away from the rest of social life (262). Lee E. Snook noted that religion in Africa is grounded in the whole of reality and permeates all relationships (56). Excluding religion from leadership development processes, social institutions, and community life is unlike the traditional African approach to religion.

REFERENCES

Extract from Chitima, K. An Investigation of Public Leadership Formation in Select Zimbabwe Churches. UMI Dissertation Publishing (BiblioLabsII), 2011

Kinoti, G. Hope for Africa and What the Christian Can Do. Nairobi: International Bible Society, 1994. 

Mazrui, Ali A. The African Condition: A Political Diagnosis. Melbourne: Cambridge UP, 1995.

Lloyd, Peter C. Africa in Social Change: Changing Traditional Societies in the Modern World. Baltimore, MD: Penguin, 1967.

Snook, Lee E. “Leadership: Cross-Cultural Reflections from Africa.” Word and World Luther Northwestern Theological Seminary13.1 (Winter 1993).

Pobee, John S., and Gabriel Ositelu. African Initiatives in Christianity: The Growth, Gifts, and Diversities of Indigenous African Churches: A Challenge to the Ecumenical Movement. Geneva: WCC, 1998.

Idowu, E. Bolaji. African Traditional Religion: A Definition. London: S.C.M., 1973.

Gehman, Richard J. African Traditional Religion in Biblical Perspective. Nairobi, Kenya: EAEP Books, 1989.

Mbiti, John S. African Religions and Philosophy. Oxford: Heinemann International, 1969.

Johnstone, Patrick, and Jason Mandryk. Operation World: When We Pray God Works. 21^st Century Edition. Waynesboro, GA: Authentic Media, 2001.

Zimbabwe Central Statistical Office. Inter-Censal Demographic Survey Report. Harare. 1997.

Zimbabwe National Evangelism Task. Target 2000 Congress Handbook , 1992.

Obed, Uzodinma. Transformational Discipleship and the 21^st Century Church. ADM Ibadan, Nigeria: Media Publications, 2008.

Kretzschmar, Louise. “Authentic Christian Leadership and Spiritual Formation in Africa.” Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 113 (July 2002).

Adeyemo, Tokunboh. Is Africa Cursed? Nairobi: Christian Learning Materials Centre, 1997.

Ayittey, George B. N. Africa in Chaos. New York: St. Martin’s, 1999.

Kanyoro, Musimbi, Andre Karamaga, and Modupe Oduyoye. Claiming the Promise: African Churches Speak. New York. Friendship, 1994.

Gifford, Paul. African Christianity: Its Public Role. Bloomington, IN: UP, 1998.

Christian History Institute. Glimpses #151: African Church Growth. Worcester, PA: CHI, 2007. Accessed 2008 <www.chi.gospelcom.net>

---

[1] The situation may have changed by 2010. The latest research was in 2000.

Leadership Challenge in Africa

Leadership Challenge in Africa

By Kurai Chitima

Leadership has taken the center stage in discussions on societal development in Africa. Leadership is inherent in the traditional African culture. Traditionally, Africa had leadership structures that worked in their time. Traditional leadership structures have now been disrupted and permanently deformed. A good example relates to chieftainships where chiefs in Zimbabwe (and elsewhere in Africa) where marginalized from significant role as leaders and representatives of their people. Even in independent Africa, pressure for them to conform to government demands, remain (Michael Bourdillon 118; Lloyd 63).

Further, against great odds Africa effectively led its own colonial emancipation. In addition, progress has been made in areas of psychological benefit, religious freedom, economic management, and regional collaboration. Strong signs of improvement in finding suitable and internationally recognizable judicial and governance structures have been observed; also, peace and order, which reflects the presence of leadership. This effort is commendable given the limited means and harsh conditions of historical social dislocations and unfavorable global perception, unfair trade, debt burden, global recession, and complex global political forces. Kanyoro notes that Africa exports more money than it receives in aid or remuneration for commodities (25, 80). Also, Laurenti Magesa reminds that though some problems are magnified in Africa they are characteristic of today’s world. He observes that because of human irresponsibility and selfishness the world is not looking good. Political instability is on the increase, peace is elusive, human suffering and poverty is on the rise and justice is being disregarded (284). A view that broad swipes Africa with bad leadership is therefore as fallacious as one that claims Africa has no leadership failure. Leadership has not always been poor and it has not been poor in every respect and instance. That granted, much more progress in overcoming problems of dependence on consumption aid, negative image, famine, poverty, and socio-political divisions and conflicts in order to secure the future is needed. This section presents some of the leadership issues Africa faces and some ways to deal with them decisively.

Challenge of Development

The positive African leadership legacy now needs refocusing towards peace and economic development. Africa has lagged behind most other continents in transforming itself to a peaceful and prosperous place. Africa has been viewed as a continent trapped in crisis. It has the largest number of least developed countries, of displaced people, of people who go hungry, of people who are illiterate and suffer from preventable diseases. The answers are as elusive as a consensus on what the problem causes are. Magesa highlights the importance of maintaining hope. He observes the fatalistic tendency to accept the status quo as being a given that is unalterable (288-89). This tendency is similar to the view that Africa is cursed, which Adeyemo dismisses in Is Africa Cursed? Africa cannot justifiably constantly shift all blame to historical or prevailing drawbacks. While outside factors may have contributed to the problems, they are often outside Africa’s control. Therefore, the issue is what Africa has done in the areas in which it has control. This question calls for greater attention. Ayittey calls for serious introspection and remedial action (44). He breaks sympathy with what he calls the internalist school of thought that blames external and colonial legacies rather than admitting managerial and leadership deficiencies. He makes an important diagnostic observation that interventions are bound to fail until Africa addresses internal defects, such as inflation, instability, corruption, and bad governance.

Leaders are not lacking, and in many cases educated ones abound. Ayyittey lists some of the wealth Africa has and observes that Africa is not poor but has poor managers:

[Africa boasts a portion, 40 percent,] of the world’s hydroelectric power supply; the bulk of the world’s diamonds (11% in Angola) and chromium; 30% of the uranium in the non communist world; 50% of the world’s gold; 90% of its cobalt; 50% of its phosphates; 40% of its platinum; 7.5% of its coal; 8% of its known petroleum reserves; 12% of its natural gas; 3% of its iron ore; millions and millions of acres of fertile untilled land; 64% of manganese; 13% of its copper. Vast resources of bauxite, nickel and lead. Unrivaled wild life, scenic grandeur; 50% of its palm oil, 70% of its cocoa, 60% of its coffee. (20)

A need is for more effective leadership that translate vision and hopes to reality. True leadership, as defined by J. Work, leads to change that translates into social betterment and moves people from selfish concerns to serving the common good (75). Leadership is inexorably proven by the results it produces. Leaders cannot escape responsibility for the results of their leadership. Leadership is the ability to fully accept the responsibility for solving problems and influence and guide others to accomplish challenging goals. Abigail Johnson defines leadership as “the ability to read and navigate the currents” (ix). The pursuit of a vision will always meet things that stand in the way to be overcome. Challenges are therefore not an excuse for failure but an opportunity to prove leadership. Africa needs more leaders who are accountable for the effects of their leadership towards the dream of a peaceful and prosperous continent. The continent must foster more performance based leadership where leadership potential and effects are rated, followed with bold remedial action when ineffectiveness is clearly proven. Areas that are already receiving attention but require better performance include governance, education, health, livelihood, management, stewardship, production, integrity, and succession.

            Africa needs more strategic leadership that transforms or develops individuals and communities. Strategic leadership recovers from the losses and consolidates the gains of the past while being pragmatic and forward looking. It formulates ways to deal with potential problems before they occur. Critical scrutiny of the past brings out important lessons and identifies millstones that ought to be discarded. The future demands originality since it comes with new challenges. The past can no longer be used as a reliable standard or excuse in looking at the future. Post modern times require leaders with adaptive capacity. Effective leaders must, therefore, be able to manage change and lead across cultures. Further, they must be able to adapt to the growing diversity, complexity, and dynamism of cultures, markets, and market environments.

Challenge of Localization

Advanced technological developments in areas such as commerce, communication, transportation, and information processing are driving globalization forces that are making the world increasingly smaller. This easiness of interaction has increased global socio-economic integration and increased susceptibility to economic crisis contagion. The challenge in Africa is not so much the globalization as the localization. The globalization is a given and is being externally driven. The challenge is how to localize, come up with African initiatives, for Africa and beyond, that are relevant and competitive in a globalized world. Issues such as when to embrace western models and how to contextualize them or invent new ones have become current.

The yearning for a local identity cannot be suppressed or swept away by globalization. Despite the strong globalization forces, William C. Lewellen contends that traditional ethnical boundaries are not being completely erased and that peasant and tribe categories remain useful. He defines contemporary globalization as the increasing flow of goods, capital, culture, ideas, and people that has resulted in increased homogenization of culture to the extent that localized cultures have adapted to it while at the same time strengthening the local cultures to the extent that they are resisting it (7). The view is that the stronger the globalization effect, the more localization is being strengthened and revived. To the extent localization has been strengthened, it is resisting the globalization forces even though it has adapted to it to some extent. Local cultures therefore have adapted to globalization but also are resisting it.

Lloyd attributes some of the resurgence of ethnic loyalties to democratic processes that render such loyalties a political tool to fan fears of ethnic domination to legitimize one’s rule. Such ethnic loyalties have been aroused to levels higher than prior to independence (270, 301). Also, such ethnic cultures provide a sense of uniqueness which no one contests as opposed to borrowed western lifestyles which come with inferiority because one cannot fully attain them. The ethnic cultures are viewed as a true original rather than a cheap copy. The aspirations that gave rise to African nationalism were not only to reclaim resources, but the African mind and identity. It may not be in its classical form, but African it should be. J. N. K. Mugambi argues that “the recognition of diversity in Africa, however, must not be used to overlook the reality of and aspiration for a commonality and homogeneity in the African experience.”(5). A Christian formation program relevant to the African context is therefore one that sympathizes and is in sync with pan African values and promotes the location of Africa interdependently with the unfolding globalized landscape.

Taking full responsibility does not require wholesale indigenization or localization and isolation from the rest of the world. Responsibility is to manage productive relations with the rest of the world, delimiting external participation but not excluding it. Africa’s responsibility is to accept or reject such external input, or even better, to initiate and direct where and how the input is engaged and integrated into an African solution. Leaders with a good understanding of African history, needs and priorities, as well as global trends, are better able to engage the rest of the world in a way that best works to the advantage of the continent. Gifford shares the view that localization must not be allowed to eclipse interdependence. External links bring alternative ideas, partnerships, and resources (308). External links have become more important than ever before because of the prevailing strong globalization forces and the high sensitivity of tourism and flow of foreign capital to poor management of external sentiment.

Challenge of Institutions and Systems

Transformation of character and style is the ideal that Christian formation offers to the development of leaders.

Africa needs leaders of integrity and competence rather than leaders who are immoral and who misuse or abuse power. Empowered, properly trained and conscientious Christian leadership (both clerical and lay) can make an enormous difference in addressing the wide range of personal, family and social needs in Africa. (Kretzschmar 46)

Without Christian or similar transformation, vices such as power abuse, nepotism, selfishness, and corruption will always be there. They are a part of human fallen nature. They even can be where there has been Christian formation because Christian formation is not perfect and does not override human choice. That is why constitutions, institutions, and systems are needed to curb the selfish tendency. Magesa points out that Christians should not only denunciate political blunders and corruption because that is an excuse, which does not get to the root problem. He argues that the cure is to “call forth and build institutions and infrastructure, in Church and State, that curb this ailment radically” (290). Kretzschmar also questions why insufficient social and/or institutional mechanisms exist to challenge incompetence and abuses of power (45). The main issue is not occurrence of abuses but failure to deter them. The church’s task is to influence the creation of such mechanisms so that they are founded on biblical values. Institutions reflect paradigms and perhaps Africa needs new paradigms and mechanisms that are effective, and empower people to be confident and free to criticize and be creative as well as know how to do it effectively. Moral courage comes when freedom as well as protection from victimization are present. Also very importantly, mechanisms are ineffective unless close attention is paid not only to their design but also their enforcement.

Challenge of Christian Formation

Christians constitute a large proportion of the population in many African countries. They are in virtually every sphere of society and often in influential positions. Adeyemo argues that “only a faithful obedient Church can bring change to Africa” (54). This change will happen when Africa leadership issues, as well as factors that determine the church’s attitude and behavior towards the issues, are addressed in Christian formation programs. Christian formation of Christian leadership must reach theological, missiological, ecclesiological, and leadership levels. The determinant theological factors have to do with what Christians understand God to be in relation to creation and society in general and the implications of that understanding. The other factor is missiological, relating to beliefs on what God has assigned, or mandated, the Church to do on earth. Ecclessiologically the issue of what forms church should take need to be addressed.

Appropriate leadership is needed in every sector and at every level. Since leadership development is a lifelong process, leadership development and training that will match the challenges in Africa and the twenty-first century best practices must begin very early in the development of young people and be sustained throughout a lifetime. Christian formation starts at home (Eph. 6:4; Deut. 4:9; 6:6-9; 11:19). The challenges of failed early up bringing and of growing nominalism can be addressed through effective Christian formation processes and demonstration of the love and power of the gospel and transformed lives. Nominal and other religious people want not just to hear, but to see the gospel with conviction in order to be motivated to greater commitment.

Ralph Winter (chapter eighteen) observes three eras in the history of modern day cross cultural missions. The first era, from 1792-1910 was spear headed by William Carey and was dominated by Europe. The primary mission frontiers at that time were coastlands of unreached lands. The second era 1865-1980 was led by Hudson Taylor and was dominated by America. The mission frontier thrust was to move from coastlands to inland.

The third era, beginning in the 1930s to the present day, is seeing rapidly increasing dominance of the third world. Philip Jenkins in his book, The Next Christendom, also makes the case that in the twentieth century the center of gravity for Christianity shifted southwards from Europe and European derived civilization (north) to Africa, Asia, and Latin America (south). The mission frontiers in the third era are more complex. They include progression from inland, to pioneering missions, to unreached inland ethnic people groups (nations): that is, nations within countries and saturation of the nations with Christ’s influence. Another mission frontier of increasing importance in the third era is taking the gospel back to the western countries where the church is on decline. Further, globalization has also created hybrid cultures through, for example, migration of people across former people-group geographic boundaries. This migration has given rise to transnationals, diasporas, and deterritorialized ethnicities. These will also be a challenge the third era missions will need to overcome.

The questions of missional, national, and vocational needs must invariably be integrated into the definition of Christian formation because such formation does not happen in a vacuum but in a context and for a purpose. Africa is no longer just  a mission field but a mission force. Presently, evidence of the misconception that mission work is for people from Western rich nations is still existent. The church in Africa needs to intentionally raise and send cross cultural missionaries. They need to accelerate current efforts by extensively cultivating a heart for world missions in Africa.

Aunthentic leadership can only be meaningfully defined within a social context (Work 75). Christian formation, Christian leadership, and theology are directional and should be qualified. Christian formation is for Africa, for India, for twenty-first century, and for public leadership. It must deal with what to do with Christian truths to promote hope, human life and dignity, address issues and alleviate the problems in one’s social context. Christian leaders answer the question of what it means to be a Christian leader in their situation. The Church’s theology, vision and practice have over time been recast to increasingly favor whole society transformation. With the rapid growth of Christianity in Africa, a rising concern is what difference the growth is making. The church in Africa can demonstrate more relevance in word and deed to issues the continent faces by widening and deepening the scope of its influence and social engagement. As observed by Pobee and Ositelu excluding religion from social institutions and community life is unlike the traditional African approach to religion.

Although much has been said about the outstanding growth of Christianity in Africa, also to be noted is that many who are not Christian have nominal Christian commitment. The current evangelism approaches are evidently drawing near their limit in terms of marginal contribution to further growth. Judging by declining effectiveness, it seems most Christians who respond to current approaches are already in churches. Christian formation therefore needs to include the aspect of innovation in the way outreach and ministry is done.

Challenge of Theological Relevance

            A historical background is helpful in exposing the need for theological relevance. The advent of colonization of Africa had both positive and negative effects on missions to Africa. On the positive side, where the colonialists went the missionaries would go because of the protection they now had from hostile indigenous peoples. This collaboration was so albeit that the motives and ideologies of the missionaries and the colonialists were by and large different (M. Bourdillon 269). Many missionaries gave up comforts and wealth at home to come and educate many nationalist leaders. Mugambi acknowledges that the role of religion in the struggle for civil rights has been ambivalent. Sometimes religion is used to support the denial of rights and sometimes to stimulate people to rise up for what is rightfully theirs (60). Kanyoro agrees and writes that “the United Methodist church in Zimbabwe accepted the challenge that nationalism presented in the 1950s and 1960s. It moved beyond education for the Church to education for the nation and world” (116).

On the negative side, because of the seeming alliance between the missionaries and the colonialists, missionaries were inextricably identified with the colonialists in the minds of most locals thus marring their image. Also, many locals felt that the missionary was an instrument of colonialism to annihilate the indigenous people’s history and cultural identity. This sentiment was aggravated by the insensitivity and intolerance the missionaries displayed to local cultures which they perceived as primitive and demonic. The impact of the disgruntlement was later felt when a strong resurgence of African traditional and new indigenous religious movements in the rise of African Nationalism and the attaining of national independence from colonial masters was present. Since the spread of Christianity to the south largely coincided with imperial expansion, it seemed certain that Christianity would fall with the colonial empires in the 1950s and 1960s. The church, however, continued to flourish and even experience accelerated growth proving that the institution was not colonialist driven.

The rise of African nationalism and the drive to indigenization has made the need for contextualization of the gospel greater than at any other time in the history of missions. Contextualization of the gospel is to communicate it in cultural forms that are relevant to the people one is trying to reach for Christ. Culture, which is shared patterns of learned behavior, plays a critical role in the process of communicating the gospel. Culture plays a critical role in being the means for conveying meaning. Better understanding of worldviews underlie the world’s major cultures than was the case when William Carey set out on his mission expedition in the eighteenth century:

Much weakness in evangelical mission work and mission churches is due to he fact that the missionaries have not been able or willing to make such cultural adaptation, social integration, psychological penetration and spiritual identifications to make spiritual fellowship deep, lasting, contagious and vital. (Peters 23)

Every culture has positive aspects and negative ones. The risk in contextualization is absorbing the negative aspects which results in syncretism—the mixing of unbiblical cultural meaning with the biblical so that the essential meaning of both is lost. Content is unchanging but cultural forms should be allowed to vary. Principles are the same but methods can vary. Richard Twiss advocates sanctification of local forms by setting them apart for God’s intended purpose (77). He argues that where cultural practices do not violate God’s word they do not need to be abandoned, but to be redeemed and transformed into valid Christian usage. One of the scriptures that supports this view is Judges 6:26. God instructed Gideon to use wood from the asherah poles of the destroyed altar of Baal to build an altar to God.

The church in Africa has noted the need for local theologizing and has made much progress towards a theology for Africa different from the colonial past. “[One that] takes note of Africa’s culture, religion, and civilization [and] advocates the right of African Christians to ponder Christianity and its truth in their own terms” (Appiah-Kubi and Torres 27). Gabriel M. Setiloane (article in Appiah-Kubi and Torres) states the need for theologizing strongly when he said, “We can be truly Christian only to the degree that we are truly African”(61).

Appiah-Kubi and Torres argue that no neutral or universal theology exists. The theology that exists is responding to historical situations linked to the dominant class of Europe but not speaking on behalf of the poor and oppressed (4). He is of the view that theology must be relevant to the poor, victims of oppression, and other realities of our time (5). Kanyoro views African theologizing as finding a way by which the church in Africa relates the Christian faith to the African situation. It impacts on styles of worship to make them authentic expressions of the African (171). Often, rejection of the gospel is not because of the message but the messenger and the approach he uses.

Two challenges exist in theologizing. One of relative meaning of terms is stated by John S. Pobee when he asks, “How indigenous is indigenous. How traditional is traditional. How African is African. So when we use african, we refer to the African people’s religiousness in the flux and turmoil of the modern world” (18). This calls for a religion rooted in the past but unlike in the past. The other challenge is considering the checks and balances that will ensure that the exercise does not degenerate to theological relativism. Pobee suggests that Christian theology should be concerned with a gospel and not a religion. The starting point should be the “Christ event” and its implications for those who see the world in a particular way (28). Paul G. Hiebert suggests that theologizing be done in the context of an international hermeneutical community that can examine cultural biases and take the process through checks and balances.

REFERENCES:

Extract from  Chitima, K. An Investigation of Public Leadership Formation in Select Zimbabwe Churches. UMI Dissertation Publishing(BiblioLabsII), 2011

Adeyemo, Tokunboh. Is Africa Cursed? Nairobi: Christian Learning Materials Centre, 1997.

Appiah-Kubi, Kofi, and Sergio Torres, eds. African Theology En Route: Papers from the Pan-African Conference of Third World Theologians, Dec 17-23, Accra, Ghana. Maryknoll, New York: Orbis, 1981.

Ayittey, George B. N. Africa in Chaos. New York: St. Martin’s, 1999.

Bourdillon, Michael. The Shona Peoples: An Ethnography of the Contemporary Shona, with Special Reference to their Religion. Gweru, Zimbabwe: Mambo Press, 1991.

Chitima, K. An Investigation of Public Leadership Formation in Select Zimbabwe Churches. UMI Dissertation Publishing(BiblioLabsII), 2011

Gifford, Paul. African Christianity: Its Public Role. Bloomington, IN: UP, 1998.

Gifford, Paul. African Christianity: Its Public Role. Bloomington, IN: UP, 1998.

Hiebert, Paul, G. Anthropological Reflections on Missiological Issues. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 1994.

Jenkins, Philip. The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity. New York: Oxford UP, 2002.

Johnson, Abigail. Shaping Spiritual Leaders: Supervision and Formation in Congregations. Herndon, VA: The Alban Institute, 2007.

Kanyoro, Musimbi, Andre Karamaga, and Modupe Oduyoye. Claiming the Promise: African Churches Speak. New York. Friendship, 1994.

Kretzschmar, Louise. “Authentic Christian Leadership and Spiritual Formation in Africa.” Journal of Theology for Southern Africa 113 (July 2002).

Lewellen, William C. The Anthropology of Globalization: Cultural Anthropology Enters the 21^st Century. Westport, Connecticut: Bergin & Garvey, 2002

Lloyd, Peter C. Africa in Social Change: Changing Traditional Societies in the Modern World. Baltimore, MD: Penguin, 1967.

Magesa, Laurenti. “Christian Discipleship in Africa in the 21^st Century.” Musoma, Tanzania. African Ecclessial Review. Christian Discipleship in Africa. Atlas Database.

Mugambi, J. N. K. African Christian Theology. Nairobi: East African Educational, 1989.

Peters, George W. A Biblical Theology of Missions. Chicago: Moody, 1972.

Pobee, John S., and Gabriel Ositelu. African Initiatives in Christianity: The Growth, Gifts, and Diversities of Indigenous African Churches: A Challenge to the Ecumenical Movement. Geneva: WCC, 1998.

Twiss, Richard. One Church Many Tribes: Following Jesus the Way God Made You. Venturia, California: Regal Books, 2000

Winter, Ralph. Perspectives on the World Christian Movement. Pasadena, CA: William Carey, 1999

Work, J. Leading a Diverse Workforce. Ed. F. Hesselbein, et al. The Drucker Foundation: The Leader of the Future. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass,1996.

Shaping Public Leaders: The Role of Christian Formation

The Role of Christian Formation in Shaping Public Leaders

By Kurai Chitima

In 2000, the director of a nongovernmental organization who was a good person but did not attend church came to my office and said, “Every leadership meeting I attend has these Jesus people. They seem to be everywhere. Tell me what is happening.” She had observed a phenomenon in Zimbabwe that is hard to ignore. Increasing numbers of church members are occupying influential leadership positions in society. This reality calls for investigations to ascertain the role of Christian formation in the leadership development of public leaders. 

Chitima (2010) carried out a study to understand the role of the local church in the formation of high ranking Christian secular leaders, such as for the public arena that includes non-profit, corporate, and political spheres. The research concentrated on public leaders who are followers of Jesus Christ and members of local churches, serving in secular settings. Understanding of how the church was contributing to the development of such leaders in Africa was vague and the question of best practices for carrying out this role was unanswered.

Developing leaders for church work receives considerable attention, even though this attention is not enough as observed by Victor Cole when he noted that one of the critical issues facing the Church in Africa today is a dearth of leadership (33). As a result, one hears calls to raise more leaders for the church. The result is a skewed church view placing much emphasis on training leaders for the church and concentrating little on intentionally developing leaders for the secular arena.

The bias, of paying less attention to the development of market place (secular) leaders, is hard to justify. One could argue that if the church does not develop leaders for itself no one else will. The same can however be said of the development of Christian secular leaders. If the church does not deliberately raise good Christian secular leaders, no one else will. The church is responsible for raising Christian leaders not just for church work but also for the diverse areas of society. Both tasks fall within the ambit of the church’s unique responsibility. The church is the seedbed for mobilizing and nurturing lay people like Christian secular leaders to be salt and light through functional lifestyles and work ethics that make a difference in the world of their vocations.

The need to bring clarity to this subject is most compelling in Africa where churches are growing rapidly in a context of deepening social challenges. Societal aspirations for economic betterment and social peace have often been elusive. During his life on earth, Jesus diagnosed a need for laborers when he saw how the multitude was helpless, harassed, and without care and direction (Matt. 9:38). The church is presently a community that can raise laborers who provide answers and guidance like good shepherds. Leaders are such laborers. John C. Maxwell notes that everything rises and falls on leadership (49). Craig Van Gelder states this fact in another way when he says that “nothing is more important than leadership” (17). Good leadership is the answer to all societal challenges.

Whether leaders are intentionally developed or not leadership is bound to happen. Intentional leadership development provides the only opportunity to shape what the leadership will be. Everything else depends on how this responsibility is carried out (Maxwell 49; Barna 17). Developing able leaders is most needed in the postmodern era in which the task of leading involves dealing with complex and dynamic socioeconomic environments. In response to this need, literature on leadership development is proliferating. The church must have better understanding of its role in developing and influencing leaders in today’s world, and intentionally make its contribution to this most crucial task in the most comprehensive and effective manner.

Definition of Terms

Market place/secular, in this study, is the literal or virtual place in a community where people are formulating and trading services, commodities, and ideas outside the church setting. Church setting refers to the realm of work initiatives by the church with direct benefit to the church. This term includes any service program in the church and run through the church structures such as pastoral work, worship music, ushering at meetings, and other service roles whether part-time or full-time, voluntary, or paid for by the church. 

Other definitions for terms in this study are:

Public Leader

Public leader refers to someone who has entered the public arena where his/her leadership responsibility, visibility, and influence go far beyond his or her immediate organization or sector; a concept that Michael D. Lindsay uses (1). This leader should have a national vision for a progressive society with basic rights and means of life such as food, shelter, work, literacy, health, and best possible education.

The question of what good leadership is has been widely debated and a plethora of literature on the subject is on the market. George Barna, after exploring various definitions reaches the conclusion that leaders are people who have willing followers (22). Garry Wills concurs when he says that leadership is mobilizing others towards a goal shared by the leader and followers (14-15). Wills further cautions promoting leadership in a way that raises suspicion that being a follower is demeaning. Followers do not just exist to respond and fit the leader’s plan, but to share in the plan. They are most essential to a leader. Persons can have determination and focus, but without followers, they are not leaders (14-15). James G. Clawson gives a definition that includes the aspect of willingness on the part of the follower as well as the leader. He defines leadership as the ability and willingness to influence others so that they respond voluntarily. Clawson’s primary argument is that voluntary acquiescence is impossible unless leadership influence is for change at the level of a target person’s values, assumptions, beliefs, and expectations (44).

Before leadership was as topical as it has become, J. Oswald Sanders defined leadership as “the ability of one person to influence others to follow his or her lead” (27). Maxwell built on this concept in saying that “Leadership is influence. That’s it. Nothing more, nothing less” (1). James C. Hunter also highlights the aspect of influence by defining leadership as “the skills of influencing people to enthusiastically work towards goals identified as being for the common good with character that inspires confidence” [emphasis mine] (32). To Bobb Biehl, leadership is “knowing what to do next, why that is important, and how to bring appropriate resources to bear on the need at hand” (157). Lee Roy Beach makes change an obvious aspect of leadership when he defines leadership as “the art of producing appropriate changes in an organization’s environment, its functions and structure, its culture, and practices in pursuit of survival and prosperity” (ix). Clawson argues that effective leadership depends on seeing what needs to be done, understanding the underlying forces in the situation, and having the courage to initiate action to make things better (4). He adds that the key to becoming an effective leader is being able to see what needs to change in oneself before changing others or the situation.

Richard L. Hughes, Robert C. Ginnet, and Gordon J. Curphy posit that people who research leadership disagree about what leadership really is. They reach the conclusion that one correct definition for leadership, for every person in every situation does not exist (6). Stephen Robbins notes, “The leadership literature is voluminous, and much of it is confusing and contradictory” (366). The many definitions reflect the different perspectives of leadership. A legitimate leadership depends on the willingness of both the leader and the follower. If no one follows, leadership has not taken place. In short, leadership is the ability to influence and guide others to accomplish shared goals even if they are challenging.

Christian Public Leader

Christian public leaders refer to public leaders who are followers of Christ, are active local church members, and who serve in secular settings. Christian leadership is distinguished from leadership in general by the biblical values that underpin it. The Christian leader views leadership as a ministry or act of service for God to men.

A Christian leader can work in the church or in a secular vocation. Biehl defines Christian leadership as “knowing what God wants to be done next, knowing why he wants it to be done, and knowing how to bring to bear the resources God would bring to bear on the need at hand” (157). Robert J. Clinton says Christian leaders ought to strive to be Bible centered leaders who use God’s word with impact and thus have ministries that will last (17). Barna defines such a leader as “someone who is called by God to lead; leads with and through Christ-like Character; and demonstrates the functional competencies that permit effective leadership to take place” (25). Spiritual leadership distinguishes itself in that, “The Spiritual leader influences others not by the power of his own personality but by that personality initiated and interpreted and empowered by the Holy Spirit” (Sanders 20). The International Leadership Institute (ILI) National Conference handbook defines spiritual leadership as “the blending of the natural and spiritual qualities of a person in the service of God and for His glory” (ILI 33). Such leadership begins with a call, is God enabled, and reflects the character of God.

Henry and Richard Blackaby hold the view that spiritual leaders understand that God is their leader (20-21). Spiritual leadership flows out of intimacy with God. “True intimacy with God occurs through intentional effort over a long period of time as your relationship grows deeper” (ILI 4). Jim Cymbala exhorts that humility is to admit the need for God and show it by seeking him fervently (19). Room is made for God’s power and glory in acknowledging human weakness (Jer. 29:13).

Spiritual leadership distinguishes leaders who seek to lead God’s way. Such leadership is essential in the market place as in the churches (Blackaby 17). A Christian leader is therefore defined first and foremost by who the person is as a follower of Christ — his/her identity, character, values, and purpose—before where he/she is located vocationally.

Leadership Development

Leadership development is a lifelong process of recognizing and harnessing leadership potential that depends on the leader’s response to various God given personal and circumstantial influences in life (Clinton 40, 54). Clinton suggests a lifelong leadership formation model that involves the leader’s choices and contextual factors over which he has no choice. He attributes the making of a leader to God who uses instruments such as circumstances, people, and events over a lifetime from birth to death. Clinton identifies phases in the life of a leader and development priorities for each phase (25). He is of the view that achievement and finishing well is the ultimate test of good leadership. Hughes, Ginnet, and Curphy give a closely related definition when they note that leadership is developed through a variety of ways in a protracted process of action, observation, and reflection, comprising their AOR model (47). The sociocultural context conditions the process.

The foremost challenge any entity (e.g., family, organization, church) faces is to develop adequately, place appropriately, and appraise leaders objectively. Understanding how leaders arise and how they can be intentionally nurtured is important. The answer to this question is important to establish the value and determine the focus of leadership development efforts. If leaders are born, then advancement efforts should focus on the identification of individuals with the requisite traits for appointment to leadership positions. If leaders are made, then efforts should focus on training individuals for leadership positions.

The assumption in this paper is that whether born with leadership traits or not, leaders can and need to be developed. Kenneth O. Gangel says, “[M]ake no mistake about it—leadership is learned behavior” (qtd. in Barna 33). Clawson points out the need to identify mimetic and genetic qualities in the development of a leader (87-88). Mimetic qualities are learned and genetic qualities are personality traits. The person with genetic traits, nevertheless, also needs training and the right conditions for the qualities to develop before actually taking the lead. Writers such as Don Hellriegel, John W. Slocum, and G. Dessler help us track the theoretical evolution views on leadership. Literature presents four main schools of leadership development thought. They include the trait theory, the behavioral, the contingency, and the modern thoughts (475-95). The trait theory is a classical approach that defines leadership in terms of personality and character (Cole 33). This theory assumes that certain physical, social, and personal characteristics are an inherent endowment that differentiates leaders from non-leaders (Hellriegel and Slocum 475). Behavioral theories focus on behaviors that may constitute leadership and acknowledges variations in leadership styles. These theories support the view that someone with the motivation can be taught the leadership behaviors (Robbins 367-68). The situation, or contingency approach, defines leadership in operational terms as it applies to specific situations (Cole 33). In this category, the theories highlight the role and effect of situational factors in leaderships’ emergence and effectiveness.

Modern thoughts on the subject include additional dimensions and seek to give a role to the other three—traits, behavior, and situation. The thoughts cover people who are leaders because other people have labeled them as such based on certain heroic endeavors or traditional customs. Charismatic leaders who have a natural favor with followers are also in this group. In addition, those who are transactional are included, which Leighton Ford defines as “an exchange process” that promises rewards to followers in exchange for performance (21). Accordingly, the ability to reward followers can influence the emergence of a leader. Those who are transformational who focus on followers and transcend their own self-interest in favor of the interests of the organization are also included in modern theories. Of the four schools of thought, only the classical trait theories seem to favor arguments on born leaders. The others are of the notion that leaders can be, and should be, made.

Maxwell does not perceive leadership as an exclusive club for those who are “born with traits” but that leadership traits and capability can be acquired. The desired qualities are developed and not discovered. He further argues that the critical requisite is desire (ii). James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner share the same view when they say, “Leadership is, after all, a set of skills. And any skill can be strengthened, honed, and enhanced if we have the proper motivation and desire, along with practice and feedback, role models and coaching” (326). This idea seems to concur with what Paul wrote to Timothy about church leadership. He noted, “[I]f anyone sets his heart on being an overseer, he desires a noble task.” (1 Tim. 3:1 NIV) . He then goes on to highlight the qualifications, traits, and competencies the person would need to acquire.

The following are some commonly stated qualities of leadership: vision, ability to inspire and empower, passion, trust, wisdom, decision, courage, humility, and integrity (Oni; Kouzes & Posner; Sanders,). Some of the qualities that took center stage by the end of the twentieth century include systemic, conceptual, strategic, and critical thinking. Some have reduced these to a few key categories or models that encompass the varied qualities. Such models for leadership bring out the areas that need particular attention in leadership development.

Leadership literature reveals several illustrative models for leadership. Dynamic Church Planting International (DCPI) puts one such model forward, which describes a three dimensional model that identifies personality, spiritual maturity, and capability as the core attributes for effective leadership. The first dimension is personality, which includes qualities a person is naturally oriented towards such as calling, gifts, and personality profile, which need discovering and honing. Clinton also links effective leadership to spiritual and natural giftedness of a leader (51-55). The second DCPI dimension is spiritual maturity, or character, shown by attitudes such as humility, love, and faith, nurtured through obedience and intimacy with God. The third dimension is ability or competence, which needs to be attained through training and experience. Jun Vencer’s model hinges on the development of three qualities, namely vision, capacity, and character development. Capacity building and character development are also in the DCPI model. An additional aspect is vision development. Barna also states that clarity and passion of vision based on calling and founded on solid character and competency distinguish good leaders and make them unstoppable (24).

The Hughes, Ginnet, and Curphy model expresses leadership as a function of three variables—the leader, the follower, and the situation (9, 24). Clawson’s theory (35) is similar but includes an additional link—that of the leader and the organization. Leadership is viewed as being an interrelation of the leader, others, the task, and the organization. The link between the leader and others is influence; the link between the leader and the organization is design, strategy, or managing change; and the link between the leader and the task is strategic thinking.

The ILI (32) finds the illustration of an equilateral triangle to be the best model to represent biblical leadership. The three sides of the triangle represent three essential characteristics derived from their intended effects. The qualities are spiritual leadership which comes from God centeredness, servant leadership which comes from service orientation (John 13:1-3; Mark 10:44), and transformational leadership which is shown by effecting meaningful change or progress.

Out of the ensuing discussion, one can summarize that the core dimensions of leadership development relate to the following three links. The first is the leader and his vision, gifts, character, or spiritual maturity and capability. The second is the leader and his relationship with followers and others (transformational service). The third is the leader and the context—in particular the task, the organization, and the situation. Since the variables are interrelated, holding them in balance, not in isolation, is necessary.

Christian Formation

Christian formation is the product of a relational process of caring, teaching, training, and modeling, followers of Jesus Christ experience, ideally in a church context. The goal is to transform them to spiritual maturity, to be productive in their vocational location, and to multiplication as conveyors of kingdom life and values. The process can be personal or corporate, intentional or fortuitous, and informal or formal. This study assumes intentional personal Christian formation.

Christian formation is facilitating a relationship in which a believer can grow to maturity in walking with and working for Christ. Neil T. Anderson defines Christian formation as the intensely personal activity of two or more persons helping each other experience a growing relationship with God (229). In this definition, he points out the personal aspect as well as the mutual benefit derived between the disciple and the discipler (facilitator). Every Christian ought to be both a disciple (learner) and a facilitator (teacher) in the context of his/her relationships whether in the family, church, or community. Often Christian formation is best expressed in terms of its components such as the process to bring people to Christ, develop them and send them to serve him. Gary L. McIntosh states, “Biblical church growth views Christian formation as the process of finding and winning the lost, folding them into a local church, and building them up in the faith” (68).

The Christian formation modeled by Christ is an intentional relational process to build, equip, and send believers for service. He called the twelve (Mark 3:13-19), then he clarified why he was calling them and what they would be expected to become. The aim is not just to cover a series of Bible materials, though it may involve such a series. Christian formation is the process of intentional instruction and modeling whereby God uses a more mature believer to exhort, correct, and build up a disciple in love, in order to produce maturity and service in Christ. Jesus’ disciples show us that disciples are in a lifelong learning process. Christian formation is a continual learning journey with its vicissitudes. Sometimes they showed strength (Matt.10:32-38; Luke 14:26, 33) and other times they showed weakness (Matt. 13:36; 17:15-20; 16:21-23; John 6:66).

The Bible uses the word disciple to describe someone committed to Christian formation. The Greek word for disciple is mathetes, which means a learner, or pupil (“Disciple” 45). A disciple of Christ is, therefore, an apprentice—one who patterns his thoughts and actions after Christ’s. A disciple is a follower of Christ. Different writers express this definition in different words. Christopher B. Adsit describes a disciple as one with a learner’s attitude and by practice gains “acquisition of a new custom or habit” in committing to grow, mature, and bear fruit (32). Uzodinma Obed defines a disciple of Christ:

[A] believer who has a steadfast disposition to acquire knowledge of Him and his teachings, as well as His lifestyle and skills, by being taught, till he progressively attains His life capacity (i.e. “the measure of the stature of the fullness of Christ”). (44)

To David Watson, a disciple is a follower of Jesus “who has committed himself to Christ, to walking Christ’s way, to living Christ’s life and to sharing Christ’s love and truth with others.” Further, Watson explains that the verb “to disciple” describes the process by which we encourage another person to be a follower who is mature in Christ and in a position to disciple someone else (66). A disciple is thus one who is becoming more like Christ and has a life that is increasingly dedicated to God’s priorities. This person’s life is transformed as his mind is renewed by what he has learned with the goal of increasingly reflecting Christ to the world around him (Rom. 12:2).

The question of whether the words “believer” and “disciple” are synonymous is debated among writers. Obed argues that not all believers are necessarily disciples of Christ, but all true disciples of Christ believe in him (40, 42). To support this, he quotes John 8:31, “if you abide in my word, you are my disciples indeed.” Whether one is a disciple or not, depends on the believer’s position of abiding in Christ, which is evidenced by a commitment to learning and obeying. If the attitude is positive and steadfast then the believer is a disciple. John Koessler believes being a disciple begins with personal commitment to Christ (156). John F. MacArthur argues that being a believer and a disciple is inseparable. He notes that “the call to Calvary must be recognized for what it is: a call to Christian formation under the lordship of Jesus Christ. To respond to that call is to become a believer” (30). To MacArthur, genuine conversion comes with a commitment to learning, and the two are inseparable. One is therefore a disciple from salvation. He does not receive salvation and later become a disciple.

This debate emanates from whether the word disciple is used in a strict or a loose sense. In a loose sense, people committed to learning from a master are disciples even though they may not yet believe in the master. Whereas someone who believes in a master but is not committed to learning is not a disciple. In this sense, even nonbelievers committed and eager to learn of Christ could be called disciples. The term disciple is used in the New Testament for varied levels of commitment, including a wider circle of people than the twelve whose commitment to learning was largely established. For example, Matthew 8:21 records, “Another disciple said to him, ‘Lord, first let me go and bury my father.’” Also, John 6:60, “on hearing this many of his followers said, ‘this is a hard teaching. Who can accept it?’” In addition, Obed’s strict definition of a disciple as one with a “steadfast disposition to acquire knowledge” begs the question of whether Judas qualified. The Bible refers to him as a disciple (Matt. 10:4; 11:1; 20:17).

This study subscribes to the stricter definition of a disciple as one who is a believer and is committed to being taught and trained. In a broad sense, however, disciples are at varied levels of commitment. Charles Ryrie describes the reality among Christians.

[I]f the examples of the disciples in the gospels may be carried over into today, then we would have to conclude that there will be some disciples who learn a little, some a lot; some who are totally committed, some who are not; some who are secret, some who are visible; some who persevere, some who defect. But all are believers (or at least professing believers who have been baptized). (Ryrie 95)

A good Christian formation process will aim for the ideal instead of endorsing a reality that falls short. The ideal is for every believer to have a total commitment to, and show evidence of, learning and growth.

REFERENCES

Extract from Chitima, K. An Investigation of Public Leadership Formation in Select Zimbabwe Churches. UMI Dissertation Publishing (BiblioLabsII), 2011

Adsit, Christopher B. Personal Discipleship: A Step by Step Guide for Leading a Christian from New Birth to Maturity. San Bernardino, CA: Here’s Life, 1988.

Anderson, Neil T. Victory over the Darkness: Realizing the Power of Your Identity in Christ. Ventura, CA: Regal, 1990.

Barna, George. Leaders on Leadership: Wisdom, Advise, and Encouragement on the Art of Leading God’s People. Ventura, CA: Regal Books, 1997.

Beach, Lee Roy. Leadership and the Art of Change. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2006.

Biehl, Bobb . Mentoring: Confidence in Finding a Mentor and Becoming One.

Blackaby, Henry, and Richard Blackaby. Spiritual Leadership: Moving People on to God’s Agenda. Nashville, TN: Broadman and Holman, 2001.

Clawson, James G. Level Three Leadership: Getting Below the Surface. 3rd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2006.

Clinton, Robert J. The Making of a Leader: Recognizing the Lessons and Stages of Leadership Development. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1988.

Cole, Victor. “The Training of Leaders for the Ministry: Implications for Theological Education.” Africa Journal of Evangelical Theology 10.2 (1991): 33.

Cymbala, Jim. Fresh Wind fresh Fire: What happens When God’s Spirit Invades the Hearts of His People. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 1997.

Dessler, G. Organizational Theory: Integrating Structure and Behavior. 2^nd ed. City?, NJ: Prentice, 1986.

Dynamic Church Planting International. Leadership Development: A 3-D Approach. Church Planting Essentials Training Handbook. Pp 16-21

Ford, Leighton. Transforming Leadership: Jesus’ Way of Creating Vision, Shaping Values, and Empowering Change. Downers Grove: InterVarsity, 1991.

Hellriegel, Don. and John W. Slocum. Management. 6^th ed. New York: Addison-Wesley, 1992.

Hughes, Richard L., Robert C. Ginnet, and Gordon J. Curphy. Leadership: Enhancing the Lessons of Experience. 5th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2006.

Hunter, James C. The World’s Most Powerful Leadership Principle: How to Become a Servant Leader. Colorado Springs, Co: WaterBrook, 2004.

ILI. National Conference Handbook. International Leadership Institute. 2009

Koessler, John. True Discipleship: the Art of Following Jesus. Chicago: Moody, 2003.

Lindsay, Michael D. Faith in the Halls of Power: How Evangelicals Joined the American Elite. New York: Oxford UP 2007.

MacArthur, John F. The Gospel According to Jesus. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1988.

Maxwell, John C. Developing the Leader within You. Nashville, TN: Thomas Nelson, 1993.

Obed, Uzodinma. Transformational Discipleship and the 21^st Century Church. ADM Ibadan, Nigeria: Media Publications, 2008.

Oni, B. “Leadership Challenge.” Bible, Culture, and Contemporary Leadership II Module Reader. Harare: ALMA, 2003.

Robbins, Stephen. Organizational Behavior: Concepts, Controversies, and Applications. 6th ed. City? NJ: Prentice, 1993.

Ryrie, Charles. So Great a Salvation. Chicago: Moody, 1997.

Sanders, J. Oswald. Spiritual Leadership. Chicago: Moody Press, 1989.

Van Gelder, Craig. The Ministry of the Missional Church: A Community Led by the Spirit. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker, 2007.

Watson, David. Discipleship. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1981.

Wills, Garry. Certain Trumpets: The Call of Leaders. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994.